如果 Alice 和 Bob 在同一時間重新整理並獲得了兩個不同的查詢結果,也許就沒有那麼令人驚訝了。因為他們不知道伺服器處理他們請求的精確時刻。然而 Bob 是在聽到 Alice 驚呼最後得分 **之後**,點選了重新整理按鈕(啟動了他的查詢),因此他希望查詢結果至少與愛麗絲一樣新鮮。但他的查詢返回了陳舊結果,這一事實違背了線性一致性的要求。
[圖 9-3](../img/fig9-3.png) 中的箭頭說明了這個時序依賴關係。客戶端 A 是第一個讀取新的值 `1` 的位置。在 A 的讀取返回之後,B 開始新的讀取。由於 B 的讀取嚴格在發生於 A 的讀取之後,因此即使 C 的寫入仍在進行中,也必須返回 `1`(與 [圖 9-1](../img/fig9-1.png) 中的 Alice 和 Bob 的情況相同:在 Alice 讀取新值之後,Bob 也希望讀取新的值)。
* 第一個客戶端 B 傳送一個讀取 `x` 的請求,然後客戶端 D 傳送一個請求將 `x` 設定為 `0`,然後客戶端 A 傳送請求將 `x` 設定為 `1`。儘管如此,返回到 B 的讀取值為 `1`(由 A 寫入的值)。這是可以的:這意味著資料庫首先處理 D 的寫入,然後是 A 的寫入,最後是 B 的讀取。雖然這不是請求傳送的順序,但這是一個可以接受的順序,因為這三個請求是併發的。也許 B 的讀請求在網路上略有延遲,所以它在兩次寫入之後才到達資料庫。
* 客戶 B 的最後一次讀取(陰影條柱中)不是線性一致性的。 該操作與 C 的 **cas** 寫操作併發(它將 `x` 從 `2` 更新為 `4`)。在沒有其他請求的情況下,B 的讀取返回 `2` 是可以的。然而,在 B 的讀取開始之前,客戶端 A 已經讀取了新的值 `4` ,因此不允許 B 讀取比 A 更舊的值。再次,與 [圖 9-1](../img/fig9-1.png) 中的 Alice 和 Bob 的情況相同。
注意 [圖 9-1](../img/fig9-1.png) 中的一個細節:如果 Alice 沒有驚呼得分,Bob 就不會知道他的查詢結果是陳舊的。他會在幾秒鐘之後再次重新整理頁面,並最終看到最後的分數。由於系統中存在額外的通道(Alice 的聲音傳到了 Bob 的耳朵中),線性一致性的違背才被注意到。
影象縮放器需要明確的指令來執行尺寸縮放作業,指令是 Web 伺服器透過訊息佇列傳送的(請參閱 [第十一章](ch11.md))。 Web 伺服器不會將整個照片放在佇列中,因為大多數訊息代理都是針對較短的訊息而設計的,而一張照片的空間佔用可能達到幾兆位元組。取而代之的是,首先將照片寫入檔案儲存服務,寫入完成後再將給縮放器的指令放入訊息佇列。
出現這個問題是因為 Web 伺服器和縮放器之間存在兩個不同的通道:檔案儲存與訊息佇列。沒有線性一致性的新鮮性保證,這兩個通道之間的競爭條件是可能的。這種情況類似於 [圖 9-1](../img/fig9-1.png),資料庫複製與 Alice 的嘴到 Bob 耳朵之間的真人音訊通道之間也存在競爭條件。
雖然線性一致是一個很有用的保證,但實際上,線性一致的系統驚人的少。例如,現代多核 CPU 上的記憶體甚至都不是線性一致的【43】:如果一個 CPU 核上執行的執行緒寫入某個記憶體地址,而另一個 CPU 核上執行的執行緒不久之後讀取相同的地址,並沒有保證一定能讀到第一個執行緒寫入的值(除非使用了 **記憶體屏障(memory barrier)** 或 **圍欄(fence)**【44】)。
這種行為的原因是每個 CPU 核都有自己的記憶體快取和儲存緩衝區。預設情況下,記憶體訪問首先走快取,任何變更會非同步寫入主存。因為快取訪問比主存要快得多【45】,所以這個特性對於現代 CPU 的良好效能表現至關重要。但是現在就有幾個資料副本(一個在主存中,也許還有幾個在不同快取中的其他副本),而且這些副本是非同步更新的,所以就失去了線性一致性。
* 在 “[檢測併發寫入](ch5.md#檢測併發寫入)” 中我們觀察到,如果有兩個操作 A 和 B,則存在三種可能性:A 發生在 B 之前,或 B 發生在 A 之前,或者 A 和 B**併發**。這種 **此前發生(happened before)** 關係是因果關係的另一種表述:如果 A 在 B 前發生,那麼意味著 B 可能已經知道了 A,或者建立在 A 的基礎上,或者依賴於 A。如果 A 和 B 是 **併發** 的,那麼它們之間並沒有因果聯絡;換句話說,我們確信 A 和 B 不知道彼此。
[^譯註i]: 設 R 為非空集合 A 上的關係,如果 R 是自反的、反對稱的和可傳遞的,則稱 R 為 A 上的偏序關係。簡稱偏序,通常記作≦。一個集合 A 與 A 上的偏序關係 R 一起叫作偏序集,記作 $(A,R)$ 或 $(A, ≦)$。全序、偏序、關係、集合,這些概念的精確定義可以參考任意一本離散數學教材。
好訊息是存在折衷的可能性。線性一致性並不是保持因果性的唯一途徑 —— 還有其他方法。一個系統可以是因果一致的,而無需承擔線性一致帶來的效能折損(尤其對於 CAP 定理不適用的情況)。實際上在所有的不會被網路延遲拖慢的一致性模型中,因果一致性是可行的最強的一致性模型。而且在網路故障時仍能保持可用【2,42】。
特別是,我們可以使用 **與因果一致(consistent with causality)** 的全序來生成序列號 [^vii]:我們保證,如果操作 A 因果地發生在操作 B 前,那麼在這個全序中 A 在 B 前( A 具有比 B 更小的序列號)。並行操作之間可以任意排序。這樣一個全序關係捕獲了所有關於因果的資訊,但也施加了一個比因果性要求更為嚴格的順序。
如果你的程式只執行在單個 CPU 核上,那麼定義一個操作全序是很容易的:可以簡單認為就是 CPU 執行這些操作的順序。但是在分散式系統中,讓所有節點對同一個全域性操作順序達成一致可能相當棘手。在上一節中,我們討論了按時間戳或序列號進行排序,但發現它還不如單主複製給力(如果你使用時間戳排序來實現唯一性約束,就不能容忍任何錯誤,因為你必須要從每個節點都獲取到最新的序列號)。
如前所述,單主複製透過選擇一個節點作為主庫來確定操作的全序,並在主庫的單個 CPU 核上對所有操作進行排序。接下來的挑戰是,如果吞吐量超出單個主庫的處理能力,這種情況下如何擴充套件系統;以及,如果主庫失效(“[處理節點宕機](ch5.md#處理節點宕機)”),如何處理故障切換。在分散式系統文獻中,這個問題被稱為 **全序廣播(total order broadcast)** 或 **原子廣播(atomic broadcast)**[^ix]【25,57,58】。
設想對於每一個可能的使用者名稱,你都可以有一個帶有 CAS 原子操作的線性一致暫存器。每個暫存器最初的值為空值(表示未使用該使用者名稱)。當用戶想要建立一個使用者名稱時,對該使用者名稱的暫存器執行 CAS 操作,在先前暫存器值為空的條件,將其值設定為使用者的賬號 ID。如果多個使用者試圖同時獲取相同的使用者名稱,則只有一個 CAS 操作會成功,因為其他使用者會看到非空的值(由於線性一致性)。
對於在單個數據庫節點執行的事務,原子性通常由儲存引擎實現。當客戶端請求資料庫節點提交事務時,資料庫將使事務的寫入持久化(通常在預寫式日誌中,請參閱 “[讓 B 樹更可靠](ch3.md#讓B樹更可靠)”),然後將提交記錄追加到磁碟中的日誌裡。如果資料庫在這個過程中間崩潰,當節點重啟時,事務會從日誌中恢復:如果提交記錄在崩潰之前成功地寫入磁碟,則認為事務被提交;否則來自該事務的任何寫入都被回滾。
XA 假定你的應用使用網路驅動或客戶端庫來與 **參與者**(資料庫或訊息服務)進行通訊。如果驅動支援 XA,則意味著它會呼叫 XA API 以查明操作是否為分散式事務的一部分 —— 如果是,則將必要的資訊發往資料庫伺服器。驅動還會向協調者暴露回撥介面,協調者可以透過回撥來要求參與者準備、提交或中止。
另一個例子是,當你有一些分割槽資源(資料庫、訊息流、檔案儲存、分散式 Actor 系統等),並需要決定將哪個分割槽分配給哪個節點時。當新節點加入叢集時,需要將某些分割槽從現有節點移動到新節點,以便重新平衡負載(請參閱 “[分割槽再平衡](ch6.md#分割槽再平衡)”)。當節點被移除或失效時,其他節點需要接管失效節點的工作。
ZooKeeper、etcd 和 Consul 也經常用於服務發現 —— 也就是找出你需要連線到哪個 IP 地址才能到達特定的服務。在雲資料中心環境中,虛擬機器來來往往很常見,你通常不會事先知道服務的 IP 地址。相反,你可以配置你的服務,使其在啟動時註冊服務登錄檔中的網路端點,然後可以由其他服務找到它們。
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