如果 Alice 和 Bob 在同一时间刷新并获得了两个不同的查询结果,也许就没有那么令人惊讶了。因为他们不知道服务器处理他们请求的精确时刻。然而 Bob 是在听到 Alice 惊呼最后得分 **之后**,点击了刷新按钮(启动了他的查询),因此他希望查询结果至少与爱丽丝一样新鲜。但他的查询返回了陈旧结果,这一事实违背了线性一致性的要求。
[图 9-3](img/fig9-3.png) 中的箭头说明了这个时序依赖关系。客户端 A 是第一个读取新的值 `1` 的位置。在 A 的读取返回之后,B 开始新的读取。由于 B 的读取严格在发生于 A 的读取之后,因此即使 C 的写入仍在进行中,也必须返回 `1`(与 [图 9-1](img/fig9-1.png) 中的 Alice 和 Bob 的情况相同:在 Alice 读取新值之后,Bob 也希望读取新的值)。
* 第一个客户端 B 发送一个读取 `x` 的请求,然后客户端 D 发送一个请求将 `x` 设置为 `0`,然后客户端 A 发送请求将 `x` 设置为 `1`。尽管如此,返回到 B 的读取值为 `1`(由 A 写入的值)。这是可以的:这意味着数据库首先处理 D 的写入,然后是 A 的写入,最后是 B 的读取。虽然这不是请求发送的顺序,但这是一个可以接受的顺序,因为这三个请求是并发的。也许 B 的读请求在网络上略有延迟,所以它在两次写入之后才到达数据库。
* 客户 B 的最后一次读取(阴影条柱中)不是线性一致性的。 该操作与 C 的 **cas** 写操作并发(它将 `x` 从 `2` 更新为 `4`)。在没有其他请求的情况下,B 的读取返回 `2` 是可以的。然而,在 B 的读取开始之前,客户端 A 已经读取了新的值 `4` ,因此不允许 B 读取比 A 更旧的值。再次,与 [图 9-1](img/fig9-1.png) 中的 Alice 和 Bob 的情况相同。
图像缩放器需要明确的指令来执行尺寸缩放作业,指令是 Web 服务器通过消息队列发送的(请参阅 [第十一章](ch11.md))。 Web 服务器不会将整个照片放在队列中,因为大多数消息代理都是针对较短的消息而设计的,而一张照片的空间占用可能达到几兆字节。取而代之的是,首先将照片写入文件存储服务,写入完成后再将给缩放器的指令放入消息队列。
虽然线性一致是一个很有用的保证,但实际上,线性一致的系统惊人的少。例如,现代多核 CPU 上的内存甚至都不是线性一致的【43】:如果一个 CPU 核上运行的线程写入某个内存地址,而另一个 CPU 核上运行的线程不久之后读取相同的地址,并没有保证一定能一定读到第一个线程写入的值(除非使用了 **内存屏障(memory barrier)** 或 **围栏(fence)**【44】)。
这种行为的原因是每个 CPU 核都有自己的内存缓存和存储缓冲区。默认情况下,内存访问首先走缓存,任何变更会异步写入主存。因为缓存访问比主存要快得多【45】,所以这个特性对于现代 CPU 的良好性能表现至关重要。但是现在就有几个数据副本(一个在主存中,也许还有几个在不同缓存中的其他副本),而且这些副本是异步更新的,所以就失去了线性一致性。
* 在 “[检测并发写入](ch5.md#检测并发写入)” 中我们观察到,如果有两个操作 A 和 B,则存在三种可能性:A 发生在 B 之前,或 B 发生在 A 之前,或者 A 和 B**并发**。这种 **此前发生(happened before)** 关系是因果关系的另一种表述:如果 A 在 B 前发生,那么意味着 B 可能已经知道了 A,或者建立在 A 的基础上,或者依赖于 A。如果 A 和 B 是 **并发** 的,那么它们之间并没有因果联系;换句话说,我们确信 A 和 B 不知道彼此。
[^译注i]: 设 R 为非空集合 A 上的关系,如果 R 是自反的、反对称的和可传递的,则称 R 为 A 上的偏序关系。简称偏序,通常记作≦。一个集合 A 与 A 上的偏序关系 R 一起叫作偏序集,记作 $(A,R)$ 或 $(A, ≦)$。全序、偏序、关系、集合,这些概念的精确定义可以参考任意一本离散数学教材。
好消息是存在折衷的可能性。线性一致性并不是保持因果性的唯一途径 —— 还有其他方法。一个系统可以是因果一致的,而无需承担线性一致带来的性能折损(尤其对于 CAP 定理不适用的情况)。实际上在所有的不会被网络延迟拖慢的一致性模型中,因果一致性是可行的最强的一致性模型。而且在网络故障时仍能保持可用【2,42】。
特别是,我们可以使用 **与因果一致(consistent with causality)** 的全序来生成序列号 [^vii]:我们保证,如果操作 A 因果地发生在操作 B 前,那么在这个全序中 A 在 B 前( A 具有比 B 更小的序列号)。并行操作之间可以任意排序。这样一个全序关系捕获了所有关于因果的信息,但也施加了一个比因果性要求更为严格的顺序。
如果你的程序只运行在单个 CPU 核上,那么定义一个操作全序是很容易的:可以简单地就是 CPU 执行这些操作的顺序。但是在分布式系统中,让所有节点对同一个全局操作顺序达成一致可能相当棘手。在上一节中,我们讨论了按时间戳或序列号进行排序,但发现它还不如单主复制给力(如果你使用时间戳排序来实现唯一性约束,就不能容忍任何错误,因为你必须要从每个节点都获取到最新的序列号)。
如前所述,单主复制通过选择一个节点作为主库来确定操作的全序,并在主库的单个 CPU 核上对所有操作进行排序。接下来的挑战是,如果吞吐量超出单个主库的处理能力,这种情况下如何扩展系统;以及,如果主库失效(“[处理节点宕机](ch5.md#处理节点宕机)”),如何处理故障切换。在分布式系统文献中,这个问题被称为 **全序广播(total order broadcast)** 或 **原子广播(atomic broadcast)**[^ix]【25,57,58】。
设想对于每一个可能的用户名,你都可以有一个带有 CAS 原子操作的线性一致寄存器。每个寄存器最初的值为空值(表示未使用该用户名)。当用户想要创建一个用户名时,对该用户名的寄存器执行 CAS 操作,在先前寄存器值为空的条件,将其值设置为用户的账号 ID。如果多个用户试图同时获取相同的用户名,则只有一个 CAS 操作会成功,因为其他用户会看到非空的值(由于线性一致性)。
对于在单个数据库节点执行的事务,原子性通常由存储引擎实现。当客户端请求数据库节点提交事务时,数据库将使事务的写入持久化(通常在预写式日志中,请参阅 “[让 B 树更可靠](ch3.md#让B树更可靠)”),然后将提交记录追加到磁盘中的日志里。如果数据库在这个过程中间崩溃,当节点重启时,事务会从日志中恢复:如果提交记录在崩溃之前成功地写入磁盘,则认为事务被提交;否则来自该事务的任何写入都被回滚。
XA 假定你的应用使用网络驱动或客户端库来与 **参与者**(数据库或消息服务)进行通信。如果驱动支持 XA,则意味着它会调用 XA API 以查明操作是否为分布式事务的一部分 —— 如果是,则将必要的信息发往数据库服务器。驱动还会向协调者暴露回调接口,协调者可以通过回调来要求参与者准备、提交或中止。
另一个例子是,当你有一些分区资源(数据库,消息流,文件存储,分布式 Actor 系统等),并需要决定将哪个分区分配给哪个节点时。当新节点加入集群时,需要将某些分区从现有节点移动到新节点,以便重新平衡负载(请参阅 “[分区再平衡](ch6.md#分区再平衡)”)。当节点被移除或失效时,其他节点需要接管失效节点的工作。
ZooKeeper、etcd 和 Consul 也经常用于服务发现 —— 也就是找出你需要连接到哪个 IP 地址才能到达特定的服务。在云数据中心环境中,虚拟机来来往往很常见,你通常不会事先知道服务的 IP 地址。相反,你可以配置你的服务,使其在启动时注册服务注册表中的网络端点,然后可以由其他服务找到它们。
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