在願意為分散式事務付出代價的有限場景中,它們已被成功應用。但是,我認為 XA 的容錯能力和效能很差勁(請參閱 “[實踐中的分散式事務](ch9.md#實踐中的分散式事務)”),這嚴重限制了它的實用性。我相信為分散式事務設計一種更好的協議是可行的。但使這樣一種協議被現有工具廣泛接受是很有挑戰的,且不是立竿見影的事。
在事件之間不存在因果關係的情況下,全序的缺乏並不是一個大問題,因為併發事件可以任意排序。其他一些情況很容易處理:例如,當同一物件有多個更新時,它們可以透過將特定物件 ID 的所有更新路由到相同的日誌分割槽來完全排序。然而,因果關係有時會以更微妙的方式出現(請參閱 “[順序與因果關係](ch9.md#順序與因果關係)”)。
從這種角度來看,批處理和流處理器就像精心實現的觸發器、儲存過程和物化檢視維護例程。它們維護的衍生資料系統就像不同的索引型別。例如,關係資料庫可能支援 B 樹索引、雜湊索引、空間索引(請參閱 “[多列索引](ch3.md#多列索引)”)以及其他型別的索引。在新興的衍生資料系統架構中,不是將這些設施作為單個整合資料庫產品的功能實現,而是由各種不同的軟體提供,執行在不同的機器上,由不同的團隊管理。
傳統上,網路瀏覽器是無狀態的客戶端,只有當連線到網際網路時才能做一些有用的事情(能離線執行的唯一事情基本上就是上下滾動之前線上時載入好的頁面)。然而,最近的 “單頁面” JavaScript Web 應用已經獲得了很多有狀態的功能,包括客戶端使用者介面互動,以及 Web 瀏覽器中的持久化本地儲存。移動應用可以類似地在裝置上儲存大量狀態,而且大多數使用者互動都不需要與伺服器往返互動。
即使我們可以抑制資料庫客戶端與伺服器之間的重複事務,我們仍然需要擔心終端使用者裝置與應用伺服器之間的網路。例如,如果終端使用者的客戶端是 Web 瀏覽器,則它可能會使用 HTTP POST 請求向伺服器提交指令。也許使用者正處於一個訊號微弱的蜂窩資料網路連線中,它們成功地傳送了 POST,但卻在能夠從伺服器接收響應之前沒了訊號。
在這種情況下,可能會向用戶顯示錯誤訊息,而他們可能會手動重試。 Web 瀏覽器警告說,“你確定要再次提交這個表單嗎?” —— 使用者選 “是”,因為他們希望操作發生(Post/Redirect/Get 模式【54】可以避免在正常操作中出現此警告訊息,但 POST 請求超時就沒辦法了)。從 Web 伺服器的角度來看,重試是一個獨立的請求;從資料庫的角度來看,這是一個獨立的事務。通常的除重機制無濟於事。
例如,你可以為操作生成一個唯一的識別符號(例如 UUID),並將其作為隱藏表單欄位包含在客戶端應用中,或透過計算所有表單相關欄位的雜湊來生成操作 ID 【3】。如果 Web 瀏覽器提交了兩次 POST 請求,這兩個請求將具有相同的操作 ID。然後,你可以將該操作 ID 一路傳遞到資料庫,並檢查你是否曾經使用給定的 ID 執行過一個操作,如 [例 12-2]() 中所示。
在這種情況下,可序列化事務作為維護衍生狀態的一部分仍然是有用的,但它們只能在小範圍內執行,在那裡它們工作得很好【8】。異構分散式事務(如 XA 事務,請參閱 “[實踐中的分散式事務](ch9.md#實踐中的分散式事務)”)不是必需的。同步協調仍然可以在需要的地方引入(例如在無法恢復的操作之前強制執行嚴格的約束),但是如果只是應用的一小部分地方需要它,沒必要讓所有操作都付出協調的代價。【43】。
當我們開發預測性分析系統時,不是僅僅用軟體透過一系列 IF ELSE 規則將人類的決策過程自動化,那些規則本身甚至都是從資料中推斷出來的。但這些系統學到的模式是個黑盒:即使資料中存在一些相關性,我們可能也壓根不知道為什麼。如果演算法的輸入中存在系統性的偏見,則系統很有可能會在輸出中學習並放大這種偏見【84】。
在許多國家,反歧視法律禁止按種族、年齡、性別、性取向、殘疾或信仰等受保護的特徵區分對待不同的人。其他的個人特徵可能是允許用於分析的,但是如果這些特徵與受保護的特徵存在關聯,又會發生什麼?例如在種族隔離地區中,一個人的郵政編碼,甚至是他們的 IP 地址,都是很強的種族指示物。這樣的話,相信一種演算法可以以某種方式將有偏見的資料作為輸入,併產生公平和公正的輸出【85】似乎是很荒謬的。然而這種觀點似乎常常潛伏在資料驅動型決策的支持者中,這種態度被諷刺為 “在處理偏差上,機器學習與洗錢類似”(machine learning is like money laundering for bias)【86】。
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1. Leigh Alexander: “[Is an Algorithm Any Less Racist Than a Human?](https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/aug/03/algorithm-racist-human-employers-work)” *theguardian.com*, August 3, 2016.
1. Jesse Emspak: “[How a Machine Learns Prejudice](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-a-machine-learns-prejudice/),” *scientificamerican.com*, December 29, 2016.
1. Maciej Cegłowski: “[The Moral Economy of Tech](http://idlewords.com/talks/sase_panel.htm),” *idlewords.com*, June 2016.
1. Cathy O'Neil: <ahref="https://weaponsofmathdestructionbook.com/">*Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy*</a>. Crown Publishing, 2016. ISBN: 978-0-553-41881-1
1. Julia Angwin: “[Make Algorithms Accountable](http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/01/opinion/make-algorithms-accountable.html),” *nytimes.com*, August 1, 2016.
1. Bryce Goodman and Seth Flaxman: “[European Union Regulations on Algorithmic Decision-Making and a ‘Right to Explanation’](https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.08813),” *arXiv:1606.08813*, August 31, 2016.
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1. Olivia Solon: “[Facebook’s Failure: Did Fake News and Polarized Politics Get Trump Elected?](https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/nov/10/facebook-fake-news-election-conspiracy-theories)” *theguardian.com*, November 10, 2016.
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1. Marc Andreessen: “[Why Software Is Eating the World](http://genius.com/Marc-andreessen-why-software-is-eating-the-world-annotated),” *The Wall Street Journal*, 20 August 2011.
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1. Bruce Schneier: <ahref="https://www.schneier.com/books/data_and_goliath/">*Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your World*</a>. W. W. Norton, 2015. ISBN: 978-0-393-35217-7
1. The Grugq: “[Nothing to Hide](https://grugq.tumblr.com/post/142799983558/nothing-to-hide),” *grugq.tumblr.com*, April 15, 2016.
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1. Shoshana Zuboff: “[Big Other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization](http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2594754),” *Journal of Information Technology*, volume 30, number 1, pages 75–89, April 2015.[doi:10.1057/jit.2015.5](http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5)
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1. Bruce Schneier: “[Data Is a Toxic Asset, So Why Not Throw It Out?](https://www.schneier.com/essays/archives/2016/03/data_is_a_toxic_asse.html),” *schneier.com*, March 1, 2016.
1. John E. Dunn: “[The UK’s 15 Most Infamous Data Breaches](http://www.techworld.com/security/uks-most-infamous-data-breaches-2016-3604586/),” *techworld.com*, November 18, 2016.
1. Cory Scott: “[Data is not toxic - which implies no benefit - but rather hazardous material, where we must balance need vs. want](https://twitter.com/cory_scott/status/706586399483437056),” *twitter.com*, March 6, 2016.
1. Bruce Schneier: “[Mission Creep: When Everything Is Terrorism](https://www.schneier.com/essays/archives/2013/07/mission_creep_when_e.html),” *schneier.com*, July 16, 2013.
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1. Michiel Rhoen: “[Beyond Consent: Improving Data Protection Through Consumer Protection Law](http://policyreview.info/articles/analysis/beyond-consent-improving-data-protection-through-consumer-protection-law),” *Internet Policy Review*, volume 5, number 1, March 2016. [doi:10.14763/2016.1.404](http://dx.doi.org/10.14763/2016.1.404)
1. Jessica Leber: “[Your Data Footprint Is Affecting Your Life in Ways You Can’t Even Imagine](https://www.fastcoexist.com/3057514/your-data-footprint-is-affecting-your-life-in-ways-you-cant-even-imagine),” *fastcoexist.com*, March 15, 2016.
1. Maciej Cegłowski: “[Haunted by Data](http://idlewords.com/talks/haunted_by_data.htm),” *idlewords.com*, October 2015.
1. Sam Thielman: “[You Are Not What You Read: Librarians Purge User Data to Protect Privacy](https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jan/13/us-library-records-purged-data-privacy),” *theguardian.com*, January 13, 2016.
1. Conor Friedersdorf: “[Edward Snowden’s Other Motive for Leaking](http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/05/edward-snowdens-other-motive-for-leaking/370068/),” *theatlantic.com*, May 13, 2014.
1. Phillip Rogaway: “[The Moral Character of Cryptographic Work](http://web.cs.ucdavis.edu/~rogaway/papers/moral-fn.pdf),” Cryptology ePrint 2015/1162, December 2015.