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Ledger – A Powerful Command Line Accounting Tool For Double-Entry Accounting
==========
Whether you are a computer geek or a normal user, keeping account of expenses is always essential. While there are many popular GUI based accounting tools available for Linux (For example – [GNUCash][1]), working on a command line accounting tool is hard to imagine for most of the users. In this article, we will discuss a powerful command line accounting tool – **Ledger**.
![](http://mylinuxbook.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/ledger-main.png)
**Ledger – Double-Entry Accounting Tool**
Ledger is a powerful command line tool for double-entry accounting. For those who are new to the term “Double-Entry”, it means that for every transaction there has to be a source. In a layman’s terms, this means, for every credit made into an account, there has to be a debit from an account. So, ledger keeps track of the movement of money and helps you understand your expenses.
Ledger does not have a database of its own, it relies on an expense sheet (a simple text file) maintained by the user. Though there is a particular format of the expense sheet that ledger understands.
For example, here is a sample expense sheet that I prepared :
![](http://mylinuxbook.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/ledger-11.png)
A couple of points worth noting :
- All the lines under a category (For example – Shopping, Leisure or EMI) are tab indented
- Similarly, all the expense figures (including $) are also tab indented
- Being Double-Entry accounting tool, it is important to specify both credit and debit. Ledger will give error otherwise.
**A brief Tutorial**
Once the expense sheet is ready, here is how you can check the overall expenses :
![](http://mylinuxbook.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/ledger-2.png)
So you can see that through **-f option**, you can specify your expense sheet name and **balance** is a ledger command that processes total payment records which are displayed categorically. Also, the debit payments are shown in RED while expenditure is shown in WHITE.
As discussed earlier, ledger requires user to enter correct debit-credit details. Here is an example of error when incorrect debit-credit relationship was mentioned in the expense sheet :
![](http://mylinuxbook.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/ledger-3.png)
I just changed the shopping expense for shoes from $50 to $60 but did not change the payment figure. As you can see that ledger displayed error “**Transaction does not balance**“.
Apart from balance, you can use **register** command to display all the entries corresponding to a report-query.
For example :
![](http://mylinuxbook.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/ledger-4.png)
So, you can see that in the example above - **register** command was used with report-query shopping and all the transaction related to this category were displayed in output.
This was just a tip of an iceberg, ledger provides many other options (including report generation) that are worth trying. Visit the [man page][2] for more.
**Pros**
- A powerful and feature rich accounting tool
- Easy to use
- Coloured output.
**Cons**
- Expense file needs to be maintained separately
- Has a bit of learning curve
**Download/Install**
Here are some of the important links related to ledger command line tool :
- [Home Page][3]
- [Download][4]
- [Documentation][5]
- [A detailed review on LWN][6]
via: http://mylinuxbook.com/ledger-command-line-accounting-tool-2/
本文由 [LCTT][] 原创翻译，[Linux中国][] 荣誉推出
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[LCTT]:https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject
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[1]:http://www.gnucash.org/
[2]:http://www.ledger-cli.org/3.0/doc/ledger.1.html
[3]:http://www.ledger-cli.org/
[4]:http://www.ledger-cli.org/download.html
[5]:http://www.ledger-cli.org/2.6/ledger.pdf
[6]:http://lwn.net/Articles/501681/

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sources/Linux development by the numbers--Big and getting bigger.md
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Linux development by the numbers: Big and getting bigger
越来越大！数字大话Linux的发展：
================================================================================
The open-source operating system project is steadily growing through any number of measurements: programmers, updates,
这个开源的操作系统项目在各种评价指标中都在稳定地成长：程序开发人员数量、更新次数以及每小时变化次数。
and changes per hour.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
![](http://asset0.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim2/2013/09/17/Linux-developers-contributing_610x342.png)
The number of developers creating Linux has steadily increased from version 3.0, released July 21, 2011, to version 3.10, released June 30, 2013.
从2011-7-21发布的3.0版本到2013-6-30发布的3.10版本的过程中，创造Linux的开发人员数量一直保持着稳定地增长。
(Credit: data from Linux Foundation; chart by Stephen Shankland/CNET)
Linux is growing -- that we knew. Now we know how fast.
过去我们知道Linux一直在成长，现在我们认识到Linux如何快速地成长。
In the last two years, the number of developers who collectively create Linux has increased from 1,131 with version 3.0
根据Linu基金会最新的Linux开发年会的报告，在过去的两年中，通过合作方式打造Linux的开发人员数量从2011年3.0版本的1131个人涨
in July 2011 to 1,392 with version 3.10, released in June 2013, according to the Linux Foundation's latest [annual Linux development report][1]. Also on the rise: the lines of code in the project, the number of changes accepted into each new 了2013年3.10版本的1392个人。同时增长的还有：项目代码的行数，每个新版本吸纳的改变数和这写改变到达的频次。
到
version, and the frequency at which those changes arrive.
"This rate of change continues to increase, as does the number of developers and companies involved in the process; thus 研究总结出，“在开发人员和一些公司的参与到该进程中，使得改变的速度仍在不停地增长，就目前来看，发展的进程揭示出了”
far, the development process has proved that it is able to scale up to higher speeds without trouble," the study concluded.
![](http://asset1.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim2/2013/09/17/Linux-lines-of-code_610x377.png)
Linux is a mammoth project, and it's getting bigger as it spreads to new hardware. It's grown to nearly 17 million lines of code with version 3.10.
(Credit: data from Linux Foundation; chart by Stephen Shankland/CNET)
Linux -- technically just the kernel at the heart of the open-source operating system that often goes by the same name -- has never attained the kind of widespread consumer recognition of OSes like Windows and iOS. Nevertheless, its clout continues to increase: it powers everything from Facebook's mammoth data centers to Google's Android.
That utility is reflected in statistics published roughly annually by the [Linux Foundation][2], the organization that employs Linux creator and overseer Linus Torvalds among others; the foundation published its September 2013 report Friday. The foundation tracks statistics using the Git source-code management tool that Torvalds wrote when unsatisfied with the earlier options. It's no Linux, but Git now has spread far and wide, too, as more and more discovered its utility at managing programming projects distributed among many developers.
Linux itself is probably the best example of such a widespread project. The recent version 3.10 of the kernel, released June 30, 2013, drew updates from 1,392 developers at 243 companies. That's up from 1,131 developers at 191 companies for version 3.0, released July 21, 2011.
![](http://asset3.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim2/2013/09/17/Linux-corporate-contributors.png)
The Linux Foundation listed the top companies that contribute to the Linux kernel.
(Credit: Linux Foundation)
"Since the beginning of the git era (the 2.6.11 release in 2005), a total of 9,784 developers have contributed to the Linux kernel," the report said.
That breadth isn't evenly distributed, of course: a small number of programmers produce much of the code patches that are applied to the kernel and vice-versa.
"In any given development cycle, approximately one third of the developers involved contribute exactly one patch," the report said. "Since the 2.6.11 release, the top ten developers have contributed 30,420 changes -- 8.4 percent of the total. The top 30 developers contributed just over 18 percent of the total."
![](http://asset3.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim2/2013/09/17/Linux-companies-contributing_610x402.png)
Two years ago, 191 companies contributed to the creation of Linux. Now it's up to 243, though the peak was 298 companies with version 3.6 in September 2012.
(Credit: data from Linux Foundation; chart by Stephen Shankland/CNET)
Some people think of open-source software as a hobbyist phenomenon, and there's plenty of that, to be sure. But the vast majority of Linux work is done by paid professionals these days.
In terms of patches accepted into Linux, the top 10 contributors are Red Hat, Intel, Texas Instruments, Linaro, SUSE, IBM, Samsung, Google, Vision Engraving Systems, and Wolfson Microelectronics. Among other developments, mobile technology companies including Texas Instruments, Samsung, Google, and Qualcomm have a serious presence, support for 64-bit ARM processors arrived over the last year, and spat between Google's Android team and other kernel programmers was resolved.
![](http://asset1.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim2/2013/09/17/Linux-changes-per-hour_610x406.png)
With each passing hour, an average of 9 updates were applied to version 3.10 of the Linux kernel.
(Credit: data from Linux Foundation; chart by Stephen Shankland/CNET)
One big contributor in 2012 was Microsoft, which submitted 688 patches so that Windows could get along with Linux in virtualization environments -- a technology where a single computer runs multiple operating systems atop a lower-level OS. It's a widely used approach in the server market to achieve greater hardware efficiency. Apparently Microsoft considers the work done, though, because it dropped off the list of contributors for the 2013 report.
Although new kernels arrive about every two months, a few of them get long-term two-year support with fixes for bugs and security problems. Those versions -- 3.0, 3.4, and 3.10 in the last two years -- are typically the foundation of commercial products.
![](http://asset2.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim2/2013/09/17/Linux-total-patches_610x408.png)
The total number of changes accepted into each version of the Linux kernel continues to grow.
(Credit: data from Linux Foundation; chart by Stephen Shankland/CNET)
via: http://news.cnet.com/8301-1035_3-57603216-94/linux-development-by-the-numbers-big-and-getting-bigger/
本文由 [LCTT][] 原创翻译，[Linux中国][] 荣誉推出
译者：[译者ID][] 校对：[校对者ID][]
[LCTT]:https://github.com/LCTT/TranslateProject
[Linux中国]:http://linux.cn/portal.php
[译者ID]:http://linux.cn/space/译者ID
[校对者ID]:http://linux.cn/space/校对者ID
[1]:http://www.linuxfoundation.org/news-media/announcements/2013/09/linux-foundation-releases-annual-linux-development-report
[2]:http://www.linuxfoundation.org/