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Blockchain 2.0 – Explaining Smart Contracts And Its Types [Part 5]
区块链 2.0：智能合约及其类型（五）
======
![Explaining Smart Contracts And Its Types][1]
This is the 5th article in **Blockchain 2.0** series. The previous article of this series explored how can we implement [**Blockchain in real estate**][2]. This post briefly explores the topic of **Smart Contracts** within the domain of Blockchains and related technology. Smart Contracts, which are basic protocols to verify and create new “blocks” of data on the blockchain, are touted to be a focal point for future developments and applications of the system. However, like all “cure-all” medications, it is not the answer to everything. We explore the concept from the basics to understand what “smart contracts” are and what they’re not.
这是 区块链 2.0 系列的第 5 篇文章。本系列的前一篇文章探讨了我们如何[在房地产行业实现区块链][2]。本文简要探讨了区块链及相关技术领域内的<ruby>智能合约<rt>Smart Contract</rt></ruby>主题。智能合约是在区块链上验证和创建新“数据块”的基本协议，它被吹捧为该系统未来发展和应用的焦点。 然而，像所有“万灵药”一样，它不是一切的答案。我们将从基础知识中探索这个概念，以了解“智能合约”是什么以及它们不是什么。
### Evolving Contracts
### 不断发展的合同
The world is built on contracts. No individual or firm on earth can function in current society without the use and reuse of contracts. The task of creating, maintaining, and enforcing contracts have become so complicated that entire judicial and legal systems have had to be setup in the name of **“contract law”** to support it. Most of all contracts are in fact overseen by a “trusted” third party to make sure the stakeholders at the ends are taken care of as per the conditions arrived. There are contracts that even talk about a third-party beneficiary. Such contracts are intended to have an effect on a third party who is not an active (or participating) party to the contract. Settling and arguing over contractual obligations takes up the bulk of most legal battles that civil lawsuits are involved in. Surely enough a better way to take care of contracts would be a godsend for individuals and enterprises alike. Not to mention the enormous paperwork it would save the government in the name of verifications and attestations[1][2].
这个世界建立在合同（合约）之上。没有合约的使用和再利用，地球上任何个人或公司都不能在当前社会中发挥作用。创建、维护和执行合同的任务变得如此复杂，以至于必须以“合同法”的名义建立整个司法和法律系统以支持它。事实上，大多数合同都是由“受信任的”第三方监督，以确保最终的利益相关者按照达成的条件得到妥善处理。有些合同甚至涉及到了第三方受益人。此类合同旨在对不是合同的活跃（或参与）方的第三方产生影响。解决和争论合同义务占据了民事诉讼所涉及的大部分法律纠纷。当然，更好的处理合同的方式来对于个人和企业来说都是天赐之物。更不用说它将以验证和证明的名义拯救政府的巨大[文书工作][7] [^1]。
Most posts in this series have looked at how existing blockchain tech is being leveraged today. In contrast, this post will be more about what to expect in the coming years. A natural discussion about “smart contracts” evolve from the property discussions presented in the previous post. The current post aims to provide an overview of the capabilities of blockchain to automate and carry out “smart” executable programs. Dealing with this issue pragmatically means we’ll first have to define and explore what these “smart contracts” are and how they fit into the existing system of contracts. We look at major present-day applications and projects going on in the field in the next post titled, **“Blockchain 2.0: Ongoing Projects”**.
本系列中的大多数文章都研究了如何利用现有的区块链技术。相比之下，这篇文章将更多地讲述对未来几年的预期。关于“智能合约”的讨论是从前一篇文章中提出的财产讨论自然而然的演变而来的。当前这篇文章旨在概述区块链自动执行“智能”可执行程序的能力。务实地处理这个问题意味着我们首先必须定义和探索这些“智能合约”是什么，以及它们如何适应现有的合同系统。我们将在下一篇题为“区块链 2.0：正在进行的项目”的文章中查看当前正在进行的主要应用程序和项目。
### Defining Smart Contracts
### 定义智能合约
The [**first article of this series**][3] looked at blockchain from a fundamental point of view as a **“distributed ledger”** consisting of blocks of data that were:
[本系列的第一篇文章][3]从基本的角度把区块链看作由以下数据块组成的“分布式分类账本”：
* Tamper-proof
* Non-repudiable (Meaning every block of data is explicitly created by someone and that someone cannot deny any accountability of the same)
* Secure and is resilient to traditional methods of cyber attack
* Almost permanent (of course this depends on the blockchain protocol overlay)
* Highly redundant, by existing on multiple network nodes or participant systems, the failure of one of these nodes will not affect the capabilities of the system in any way, and,
* Offers faster processing depending on application.
* 防篡改
* 不可否认（意味着每个数据块都是由某人明确创建的，并且该人不能否认相同的责任）
* 安全，且对传统的网络攻击方法具有抗性
* 几乎是永久性的（当然这取决于区块链协议层）
* 高度冗余，通过存在于多个网络节点或参与者系统上，其中一个节点的故障不会以任何方式影响系统的功能，并且，
* 根据应用可以提供更快的处理速度。
由于每个数据实例都是通过适当的凭证安全存储和访问的，因此区块链网络可以为精确验证事实和信息提供简便的基础，而无需第三方监督。区块链 2.0 开发也允许“分布式应用程序（DApp）”（我们将在即将发布的文章中详细介绍这个术语）。这些分布式应用程序根据要求存在并在网络上运行。当用户需要它们并通过使用已经过审查并存储在区块链中的信息来执行它们时，它们被调用。
上面的最后一段为定义智能合约提供了基础。<ruby>数字商务商会<rt>The Chamber for Digital Commerce</rt></ruby>提供了一个许多专家都同意的智能合约定义。
Because every instance of data is securely stored and accessible by suitable credentials, a blockchain network can provide easy basis for precise verification of facts and information without the need for third party oversight. blockchain 2.0 developments also allow for **“distributed applications”** (a term which we’ll be looking at in detail in coming posts). Such distributed applications exist and run on the network as per requirements. They’re called when a user needs them and executed by making use of information that has already been vetted and stored on the blockchain.
> “（智能合约是一种）计算机代码，在发生特定条件或条件时，能够根据预先指定的功能自动运行。该代码可以在分布式分类帐上存储和处理，并将任何结果更改写入分布式分类帐” [^2]。
The last paragraph provides a foundation for defining smart contracts. _**The Chamber for Digital Commerce**_ , provides a definition for smart contracts which many experts agree on.
智能合约如上所述是一种简单的计算机程序，就像 “if-then” 或 “if-else if” 语句一样工作。关于其“智能”的方面来自这样一个事实，即该程序的预定义输入来自区块链分类账本，如上所述，它是一个安全可靠的记录信息源。如果需要，程序可以调用外部服务或来源以获取信息从而验证操作条款，并且只有在满足所有预定义条件后才执行。
_**“Computer code that, upon the occurrence of a specified condition or conditions, is capable of running automatically according to prespecified functions. The code can be stored and processed on a distributed ledger and would write any resulting change into the distributed ledger”[1].**_
必须记住，与其名称所暗示的不同，智能合约通常不是自治实体，严格来说也不是合同。1996 年，Nick Szabo 于 很早就提到了智能合约，他将其与接受付款并交付用户选择产品的自动售货机进行了比较。可以在[这里][4]查看全文。此外，人们正在制定允许智能合约进入主流合同使用的法律框架，因此目前该技术的使用仅限于法律监督不那么明确和严格的领域 [^4]。
Smart contracts are as mentioned above simple computer programs working like “if-then” or “if-else if” statements. The “smart” aspect about the same comes from the fact that the predefined inputs for the program comes from the blockchain ledger, which as proven above, is a secure and reliable source of recorded information. The program can call upon external services or sources to get information as well, if need be, to verify the terms of operation and will only execute once all the predefined conditions are met.
### 智能合约的主要类型
It has to be kept in mind that unlike what the name implies, smart contracts are not usually autonomous entities nor are they strictly speaking contracts. A very early mention of smart contracts was made by **Nick Szabo** in 1996, where he compared the same with a vending machine accepting payment and delivering the product chosen by the user[3]. The full text can be accessed **[here][4]**. Furthermore, Legal frameworks allowing the entry of smart contracts into mainstream contract use are still being developed and as such the use of the technology currently is limited to areas where legal oversight is less explicit and stringent[4].
假设读者对合同和计算机编程有基本的了解，并且基于我们对智能合约的定义，我们可以将智能合约和协议粗略地分类为以下主要类别。
### Major types of smart contracts
##### 1、智能分类账本合约
Assuming the reader has a basic understanding of contracts and computer programming, and building on from our definition of smart contracts, we can roughly classify smart contracts and protocols into the following major categories.
这些可能是最明显的类型。大多数（如果不是全部）合同都具有法律效力。在不涉及太多技术细节的情况下，智能的合法合约是涉及严格的法律追索权的合同，以防参与合同的当事人不履行其交易的目的。如前所述，不同国家和地区的现行法律框架缺乏对区块链智能和自动化合约的足够支持，其法律地位也不明确。但是，一旦制定了法律，就可以订立智能合约，以简化目前涉及严格监管的流程，如金融和房地产市场交易、政府补贴、国际贸易等。
##### 1\. Smart legal contracts
##### 2、DAO
These are presumably the most obvious kind. Most, if not, all contracts are legally enforceable. Without going into much technicalities, a smart legal contact is one that involves strict legal recourses in case parties involved in the same were to not fulfill their end of the bargain. As previously mentioned, the current legal framework in different countries and contexts lack sufficient support for smart and automated contracts on the blockchain and their legal status is unclear. However, once the laws are made, smart contracts can be made to simplify processes which currently involve strict regulatory oversight such as transactions in the financial and real estate market, government subsidies, international trade etc.
<ruby>去中心化的自治组织<rt>Decentralized Autonomous Organization</rt></ruby>，即DAO，可以松散地定义为区块链上存在的社区。社区可以通过一组规则来定义，这些规则通过智能合约来体现并放入代码中。然后，每个参与者的每一个行动都将受到这些规则的约束，其任务是在程序中断的情况下执行并获得追索权。许多智能合约构成了这些规则，它们协同监管和观察参与者。
##### 2\. DAOs
名为 Genesis DAO 的 DAO 由以太坊参与者于 2016 年 5 月创建。该社区旨在成为众筹和风险投资平台。在极短的时间内，他们设法筹集了惊人的 1.5 亿美元。然而，黑客在系统中发现了漏洞，并设法从众筹投资者手中窃取价值约 5000 万美元的以太币。这次黑客破坏的后果导致以太坊区块链[分裂为两个][8]，以太坊和以太坊经典。
**Decentralized Autonomous Organizations** , shortly DAO, can be loosely defined as communities that exist on the blockchain. The community may be defined by a set of rules arrived at and put into code via smart contracts. Every action by every participant would then be subject to these sets of rules with the task of enforcing and reaching at recourse in case of a break being left to the program. Multitudes of smart contracts make up these rules and they work in tandem policing and watching over participants.
##### 3、应用程序逻辑合约（ALC）
A DAO called the **Genesis DAO** was created by **Ethereum** participants in may of 2016. The community was meant to be a crowdfunding and venture capital platform. In a surprisingly short period of time they managed to raise an astounding **$150 million**. However, hacker(s) found loopholes in the system and managed to steal about **$50 million** dollars’ worth of Ethers from the crowdfund investors. The hack and its fallout resulted in a fork of the Ethereum blockchain into two, **Ethereum** and **Ethereum Classic** [5].
如果你已经听说过与区块链相关的物联网，那么很可能这个问题谈到了<ruby>应用程序逻辑合约<rt>Application logic contract</rt></ruby>，即 ALC。此类智能合约包含特定于应用程序的代码，这些代码可以与区块链上的其他智能合约和程序一起使用。它们有助于与设备之间的通信并进行通信验证（在物联网领域）。ALC 是每个多功能智能合约的关键部分，并且大多数都是在管理程序下工作。它们在这里引用的大多数例子中找到[应用][9] [^6]。
##### 3\. Application logic contracts (ALCs)
If you’ve heard about the internet of things in conjunction with the blockchain, chances are that the matter talked about **Application logic contacts** , shortly ALC. Such smart contracts contain application specific code that work in conjunction with other smart contracts and programs on the blockchain. They aid in communicating with and validating communication between devices (while in the domain of IoT). ALCs are a pivotal piece of every multi-function smart contract and mostly always work under a managing program. They find applications everywhere in most examples cited here[6][7].
_Since development is ongoing in the area, any definition or standard so to speak of will be fluidic and vague at best currently._
*由于该领域还在开发中，因此目前所说的任何定义或标准最多只能说是流畅而模糊的。*
### How smart contracts work**
@ -135,17 +133,11 @@ All of this is keeping aside the significant initial investment that might be ne
Current legal frameworks don’t really support a full-on smart contract enabled society and won’t in the near future due to obvious reasons. A solution is to opt for **“hybrid” contracts** that combine traditional legal texts and documents with smart contract code running on blockchains designed for the purpose[4]. However, even hybrid contracts remain largely unexplored as innovative legislature is required to bring them into fruition. The applications briefly mentioned here and many more are explored in detail in the [**next post of the series**][6].
**References:**
* **[1] S. C. A. Chamber of Digital Commerce, “Smart contracts – Is the law ready,” no. September, 2018.**
* **[2] [Legal Definition of ius quaesitum tertio][7].
**
* **[3][N. Szabo, “Nick Szabo — Smart Contracts: Building Blocks for Digital Markets,” 1996.][4]**
* **[4] Cardozo Blockchain Project, “‘Smart Contracts’ & Legal Enforceability,” vol. 2, p. 28, 2018.**
* **[5][The DAO Heist Undone: 97% of ETH Holders Vote for the Hard Fork.][8]**
* **[6] F. Idelberger, G. Governatori, R. Riveret, and G. Sartor, “Evaluation of Logic-Based Smart Contracts for Blockchain Systems,” 2016, pp. 167–183.**
* **[7][Types of Smart Contracts Based on Applications | Market InsightsTM – Everest Group.][9]**
* **[8] B. Cant et al., “Smart Contracts in Financial Services : Getting from Hype to Reality,” Capgemini Consult., pp. 1–24, 2016.**
[^1]: S. C. A. Chamber of Digital Commerce, “Smart contracts – Is the law ready,” no. September, 2018.
[^2]: S. C. A. Chamber of Digital Commerce, “Smart contracts – Is the law ready,” no. September, 2018.
[^4]: Cardozo Blockchain Project, “‘Smart Contracts’ & Legal Enforceability,” vol. 2, p. 28, 2018.
[^6]: F. Idelberger, G. Governatori, R. Riveret, and G. Sartor, “Evaluation of Logic-Based Smart Contracts for Blockchain Systems,” 2016, pp. 167–183.
[^8]: B. Cant et al., “Smart Contracts in Financial Services : Getting from Hype to Reality,” Capgemini Consult., pp. 1–24, 2016.
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